Socioeconomic Perspective
The Wider Caribbean encompasses a vast marine area, bordered by island nations, dependent territories, and continental countries. With 36 nations represented, it comprises the largest number of national jurisdictions of any similarly sized region in the world. Within the region, the West Indies consists of 23 island States featuring a variety of people, cultures and political systems characterized by different types and stages of economic development (Table 1). Although part of the Americas, the islands of the West Indies are a unique entity whose history, societies, environment, and general ambiance differ in many significant aspects from those of any found on the Latin American, North American, or European mainland.
The West Indies were the first to encounter the initial thrust of European expansion across the Atlantic. The consequences of the ensuing traffic of plant and animal species, peoples, diseases, and raw materials are well known, and include the eventual loss of all aboriginal human populations inhabiting these islands. In addition, the islands bore the brunt of the European movement towards tropical plantation development. The region entered a new stage of environmental change characterized by increased resource use, a shift in human-environment relationships, and greater exposure to outside technologies, a process that continues to the present. The cumulative effect of this history is reflected in widespread ecological transformations. Like most small tropical islands, West Indian ecosystems are environmentally fragile and vulnerable to deforestation, erosion, and conversion for development. Reduced area, exposure to hurricanes, and the presence of active volcanoes on some islands further compound their social, economic, and environmental vulnerability.
Historical perspective of development
The historical impact of aboriginal peoples on West Indian ecosystems is still uncertain. A key question is whether the native inhabitants of the islands ever achieved high population densities. Proposed figures for Hispaniola, the standard demographic reference for the region, range from 100,000 to 6-8 million (Watts 1987, Keagan 1992). According to Keagan (1992), it is not inconceivable that the Taino population of Hispaniola reached 1-2 million. Although a matter of continued debate, the total native population of the West Indies in 1492 could have been more than 5.8 million (Watts 1987). Despite this, it is generally believed that aboriginal inhabitants did not have a significant impact on the natural environment, leaving most mature forests largely untouched. Taino social and political complexity was based in part on a system of intensive agriculture, with manioc as a staple, supplemented with abundant wild estuarine and marine resources (Wing 1989, Deagan 1995). Following European contact, disease, falling birthrates, hard labor, and even anomie from culture shock decimated aboriginal populations. By 1576, native peoples had been extirpated on Hispaniola, which was then occupied by Spanish, black, and racially mixed populations.
Following early colonization, the region became a source of tropical agricultural commodities. Markets in Europe and North America were relatively accessible and the slave trade had enormous demographic, social, and environmental consequences. Rapid population growth, widespread use of plantation agricultural systems after the 17th century, large-scale land clearing for sugar cane, and timber harvesting produced widespread deforestation, erosion, loss of water resources, and a decline in fertility and productivity (McElroy et al. 1990). As a result, many West Indian islands were deforested early. The forest cover of Puerto Rico was reduced to 10% of its former range by the end of the 19th century, and what remained was disturbed and often mixed with coffee understory (Harcourt and Sayer 1996). For the West Indies as a whole, total forest cover remaining in 1920 was only 50% (Zon and Sparhawk 1923). Further deforestation for sugar cane plantations and cattle ranching up until the 1970s reduced overall West Indian forest cover to 18% (Lugo et al. 1981). While a few island countries still presently maintain about 50% of their forest cover, others have lost almost all of it.
The spread of exotic species was another emerging threat, including both deliberate and unintentional introductions of domestic, commensal and, eventually, wild stocks. Prominent among intentional Spanish imports were hogs, cattle, sheep, and goats for food, with horses, donkeys, dogs, and cats also brought in to satisfy other needs. In the absence of competitors and predators, feral populations flourished. Free-range cattle ranching was widespread, developing first in the lowlands, and trade in cattle hides was extensive, with as many as 200,000 hides exported from Hispaniola annually prior to the 1580s (Deagan 1995).
In the 200 years following colonization, coastal lowland forests were extensively reduced through conversion to plantations and cattle ranching. Degradation of lowland habitats led to the spread of sugar cultivation and livestock production to higher elevations. Pressure upon montane forests for subsistence agriculture increased between 1880 and 1940 following the abolition of slavery. After emancipation (circa 1840), the economic return from sugar cultivation and export plummeted as a result of higher labor costs and competition from larger producers (McElroy et al. 1990). The consequences of these economic losses spawned a continuous migratory trend, a demographic shift from the steady population growth maintained since colonial times, the appearance of marginal, small-scale farm systems, and a tendency for local populations to turn to artisanal fisheries as a subsistence and largely unregulated commercial enterprise (McElroy et al. 1990).
During the early 20th century, the cumulative effect of these environmental changes, as well as the clearing of primary and secondary forests, over-browsing by livestock, and continued erosion, habitat destruction, and soil degradation had a strong impact on West Indian island ecosystems. Widespread depletion of resources resulted in diminishing productivity for farming and fishing and a decline in rural employment and traditional cash crops. These changes resulted in large scale and continuing emigration, reduced availability of food and energy at accessible costs, severe sectoral imbalances in insular economies, and drastic changes in land use. A few very large tracts of land became consolidated into large-scale export crop and livestock farms, while a large number of small tracts of land appeared as fragmented and largely non-productive family farm plots. A shift from production to service-based economies was stimulated by low-cost food imports and the need to support increasing urban populations and tourists.
Present and future challenges
At present, all West Indian islands have population densities that are among the highest in the world, excluding southwest Asia (FAO, 1997) (Table 1). About 72.6% of the total population in the region are concentrated in Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, with Hispaniola supporting the highest numbers. The average annual rate of population increase for the region is 1.3%, although a few countries are approaching or below the replacement level. Characterized by high rates of urbanization (World Resources Institute 1996), the region's population is projected to increase to about 40 million by the year 2000, and to nearly 60 million by 2025. The cosmopolitan array of peoples representing a variety of races, ethnic mixes, languages, and cultures has hampered regional integration and implementation of environmentally and socially sustainable development.
The tourist industry in the West Indies has developed rapidly over the last 40 years, and since the 1960s has become the leading economic sector in many island states. According the World Council on Travel and Tourism, the impact of this industry on West Indian economies is significant, representing about 30% of the regional Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Its current estimated annual growth is 35%, contributing strongly to the generation of local employment. Furthermore, the industry is the leading provider of foreign currency income, accounting for 76.2% of total capital investment in the region. The rapid expansion of tourism has resulted in escalating land values, with concomitant increases in population growth and per capita income. With modernization, the traditional rural sector has been reduced and farming and fishing have become marginal activities. Extensive coastal development due to urbanization, industrialization, and tourism has impacted estuaries, mangrove forests, and coral reef ecosystems. Unregulated exploitation has caused widespread depletion of formerly abundant traditional subsistence fisheries in the region (FAO 1993). Simultaneously, local populations of highly threatened marine species such as sea turtles and manatees have been drastically reduced.
West Indian countries face special challenges because of their small size and extreme economic and environmental vulnerability. As a result of mountainous topography and high population densities, the cost of economic and social infrastructure is high. Internal markets are small and open to world trade, with exports and imports of goods and services averaging 75% of GDP. Most of the islands have traditionally been monocrop economies, relying on preferential trade arrangements for their main exports. Commercial barriers for West Indian exports to the US have increased, and the region's export markets are now threatened by larger trade arrangements (e.g. General Agreement on Trade & Tariffs [GATT], integration of European Common Market, North American Free Trade Association [NAFTA]).
Regional economic growth remains constrained by a number of factors, including underdeveloped domestic financial sectors and infrastructure, low domestic saving rate, and associated scarcity of capital for investment. As aid to the region has declined, economic prospects have depended increasingly on private sector development to generate growth to compete in the global economy, create jobs, and increase per capita income. As a result, West Indian economies continue to be vulnerable to external changes, particularly trade and financial flows influencing regional markets. Major economic challenges include improving social development, strengthening public finances, reforming financial markets, improving legal and regulatory environments to promote private sector activity, and reforming the public sector to improve governance.
Following the economic stagnation of the 1980s, productivity and exports are currently rising, per capita income is growing, private sector performance is improving, and inflation continues to decrease. Against this encouraging economic picture, overcrowded and polluted cities, persistent poverty, and threatened biodiversity stand in stark contrast. In light of these problems, the region's challenge is to align economic growth with social equity, sustainably manage biologically diverse areas, and control urban environmental problems. Achieving these tasks will require integration of environmental concerns into investment programs and policy frameworks to ensure sustainability, and building the institutional capacities to implement priority programs and monitor compliance.
Implications for iguana conservation
West Indian iguanas occur primarily in dry forest habitats in coastal lowlands, where they are vulnerable to impacts from human land use and associated degradation of coastal ecosystems. West Indian nations largely depend on the health and beauty of coastal habitats to generate income, particularly from nature-based tourism. As a result, economic activities and human populations are heavily concentrated along coastal areas. The conservation of coastal biodiversity in the region is therefore linked not only to social, cultural, and political conditions, but also to economic realities and prevailing financial constraints.
Environmental problems and priorities affecting coastal biodiversity in the region are complex and diverse. Causes of destruction, fragmentation, and degradation of coastal ecosystems include: urbanization; uncontrolled development of tourism and industrial infrastructure; coastal modification through construction, mining, filling and dredging; deforestation; fuelwood and hardwood extraction; soil erosion and watershed degradation; demand for food and raw materials; retention of freshwater flow and withdrawal of water for irrigation; sewage, industrial, and solid waste disposal; agrochemical runoff; operational and accidental spills. In addition, introduced mammalian herbivores and carnivores in coastal areas have proven highly detrimental to native plant and animal biodiversity, including iguanas and their habitats.
A number of authors (in Harcourt and Sayer 1996) recently concluded that most of the natural lowland forests of West Indies have already been devastated. Total forest cover for the West Indies in 1995 was estimated at 19.4% of total land area, with an average annual deforestation rate of 1.7% for the period 1990-95 (Table 1). Major causes of forest degradation include habitat destruction and clearing of land for agriculture, extraction of forest products for timber, fuelwood and charcoal, and forest fires, often originating from subsistence agriculture.
Although moist forests have suffered extensively, some relatively large tracts of mangrove and coastal xeric communities remain less impacted. However, little information exists about the total remaining extent and present status of West Indian dry forest communities (World Wildlife Fund 1996). According to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1997 Forest Database, 14,802 km2 of dry forest remains, including deciduous/semideciduous broadleaf forest (7,734 km2), thorn forest (1,206 km2), sclerophyllous dry forest (5,822 km2), and sparse trees/parkland (40 km2). A recent regional analysis of geographic priorities for biodiversity conservation in Latin America and the Caribbean ranked Caribbean ecoregion as endangered and its xeric communities as regionally significant for their biological value (Biodiversity Support Program et al. 1995).
According to the recent IUCN/SSC Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Cactus and Succulent Plants (Oldfield 1997), 75% of cactus and succulent plant species surveyed are endemic to the West Indies (actual percentage likely even higher as Burseraceae, Begoniaceae, Piperaceae, Rubiaceae, Urticaceae, aroids, and orchids are not covered). While the taxonomic status of West Indian succulents remains poorly known, new species continue to be discovered (Areces-Mallea 1997). In general, the largest number and highest density of endemics occur in arid coastal areas and other dry habitats, which also support West Indian iguanas. Vegetation categories listed in Oldfield (1997) for West Indian succulents (sandy beaches; strand littoral scrub and low forest; saline flats; rock pavement vegetation; dry limestone shrubwoods; semi-desert cactus scrub; dry serpentine shrubwoods) generally also support West Indian iguanas. Not unexpectedly, many threats identified for these plant communities are similar to those affecting iguanas (clearing for agriculture, urbanization and tourism, mining and quarrying, collecting, introduced species, and natural disasters).
Sustainable forest management in the West Indies is complicated due to the great diversity of forest types, making it difficult to develop successful management techniques that can be applied over large areas (Lugo 1990). Furthermore, competition for flat land is intense and the price of coastal land has soared during the last two decades. Conservation of West Indian iguanas is clearly linked to future preservation of dry coastal habitats. For some countries like Haiti, it may already be too late to save remaining forests (Table 1). However, many countries have passed new laws and regulations pertaining to natural forest management and use that reflect the key social, environmental, and economic roles forests play.
Conclusions
Regional success in managing coastal ecosystems is ultimately rooted in the ability of individual West Indian states to build their internal capacities and commit wholeheartedly to a regional approach. In the past, mostly because of the lack of political support, integration efforts have failed. Notwithstanding these and other obstacles, it is heartening to see a great deal of functional cooperation being practiced daily, a process which is expanding. Over the ensuing decades, it may well be economic issues, especially those of tourism, commercial trade markets and fisheries, rather than political issues that will effectively integrate the region. In addition, promotion of basic and essential linkages at the physical, cultural, and institutional levels will be critical to integrating philosophies and activities among countries. Parallel implementation of a comprehensive coastal management policy to preserve and protect the remarkable biodiversity resources of the West Indies will be essential. Participatory management experiments, which allow local stakeholders to play a leading role in identifying priorities, problems, and management strategies, are vital to national planning efforts and capacity building. Successful implementation of these actions can then effectively complement the establishment of a regional consensus on conservation priorities, standards, and strategies (Ottenwalder 1996).
Below is a set of general recommendations from a socioeconomic perspective for achieving the conservation goals and activities outlined herein.
- Apply ecosystem management principles to conservation efforts.
- A range of actors including local communities, government institutions, and private organizations, including non-governmental organizations and the tourist sector, should be involved in the planning and implementation of conservation and management activities, as appropriate.
- Develop and promote sustainable management of dry forest habitats in cooperation with local communities.
- Maximize overall biodiversity conservation by integrating efforts at the species, community, and ecosystem levels.
- Enhance impact and effectiveness of efforts by cooperating with other IUCN Commissions and SSC Specialist Groups active in the region, in order to pursue an integrated, multi-disciplinary approach.
- Prioritize and incorporate coastal habitat protection in tourism development planning, making use of tools such as environmental impact assessments, and strengthening relevant legislation.
- Emphasize capacity building and strengthening local conservation institutions, for both government agencies and non-governmental organizations.
- Promote regional cooperation and integrative approaches among and between West Indian states.
